NASA Office of Logic Design

A scientific study of the problems of digital engineering for space flight systems,
with a view to their practical solution.

Spaceborne Processor and Avionics Papers

Title, Authors, Reference	Abstract
Accelerated Verification of Digital Devices Using VHDLXL Sandi Habinc and Peter Sinander European Space Agency	Abstract This paper presents two aspects for improving the verification of microprocessors; program-less verification, and methods for handling large differences in abstraction level between a reference model and the actual design. Program-less verification is a type of pseudo random verification where the notion of a software program executing on the microprocessor has been abandoned.
The Problem with Aviation COTS Lionel D. Alford, Jr. USAF IEEE AESS Systems Magazine February 2001, pp. 33-37 alford_2001	Abstract Commercial Off the Shelf (COTS) has become a byword for acquisition reform, but there are significant risks associated with the use of COTS products in military systems.  This paper explains how COTS can negatively affect military acquisitions and gives ideas on how to plan and resolve COTS caused problems.
A Study of Flight-Critical Computer System Recovery from Space Radiation-Induced Error Chung-Yu Liu IEEE AESS Systems Magazine September 2002, pp. 19-25 liu_2002.pdf	Abstract: It is well known that space radiation, containing energetic particles such as protons and ions, can cause anomalies in digital avionics onboard satellites, spacecraft, and aerial vehicles flying at high altitude. Semiconductor devices embedded in these applications become more sensitive to space radiation as the features shrink in size. One of the adverse effects of space radiation on avionics is a transient error known as single event upset (SEU). Given that it is caused by bit-flips in computer memory, SEU does not result in a damaged device. However, the SEU induced data error propagates through the run-time operational flight program, causing erroneous outputs from a flight-critical computer system. This study was motivated by a need for a cost-effective solution to keep flight-critical computers functioning after SEU occurs. The result of the study presents an approach to recover flight-critical computer systems from SEU induced error by using an identity observer array. The identity observers replicate the state data of the controller in distinct data partitions. The faulty controller can be recovered by replacing data image of the faulty data Partition with that of the healthy data partition. The methodology of applying such an approach from the fault tolerant control perspective is presented. The approach is currently being tested via computer simulation.
Aging Avionics: The Problems and the Challenges Ellis Hitt and Bob Zwitch IEEE AESS Systems Magazine September 2002, pp. 16-21 hitt_2002	Abstract: Aging avionics have become a problem because aircraft are being kept in service far longer than the original plan. This paper discusses the four key problems of aging avionics: 1) determining the systems that are the high cost drivers in order to select those that should receive priority; 2) determining the requirements for the replacement; 3) identifying alternative technologies that will satisfy the requirements and are affordable; and 4) determining the funding required and acquiring the funding needed to replace the aging avionics. Challenges encountered in solving these problems include management and technical. The problem of aging avionics is not limited to a single aircraft but occurs across all aircraft. Cost-effective modernization requires cutting horizontally across all aging aircrft and coordination with the end users and the existing management structure. A key technical challenge is to select an architecture that is upgradeable since the funding limitations may ensure parts will become obsolete prior to the completion of a drawn-out production.
The Cost of COTS Jim Hall and Ray Naff IEEE AESS Systems Magazine August 2001, pp. 20-24 hall_2001	Abstract: Fairchild Defense, a division of Orbital Sciences Corporation, has been a pioneer in the use of Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) hardware, software, and tools in military equipment. Fairchild has developed a cost and schedule effective approach to the use of COTS elements. This paper discusses Fairchild's experience with the use of COTS in military equipment and special considerations imposed because of the military environment.
Airborne Computer Technology W. T. Chow IBM Electronics Systems Center Owego, New York Proceedings of the Tenth Space Congress Cocoa Beach, Florida April 11-13, 1973 pp. 4-19 through 4-28 chow	Abstract: The development of airborne digital computer has been greatly influenced by rapid technological advances.  This paper provides an overview of the present status and the direction of further evolution.  It discusses the changes that are taking place in the areas of hardware, software, and computer organization; and suggests a number of approaches towards a broadened usage of airborne computer to take advantage of its increasing capability and decreasing cost.
Computers and the Space Program: An Overview C. C. Kraft, Jr. IBM Journal of Research and Development Volume 20, Number 1, Page 3 (1976) kraft.pdfXL kraft.pdf	Since the earliest days of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the American space program has been dependent on the data processing industry. Without the computer, there would have been no space program and, likewise, without the space program the main technological forces driving the computer industry forward would have been missing.
Development of On-board Space Computer Systems A. E. Cooper, W. T. Chow IBM Journal of Research and Development Volume 20, Number 1, Page 5 (1976) cooper.pdfXL cooper.pdf	This paper describes the functions, characteristics, requirements, and design approaches of the on-board computers for seven space vehicles - Saturn I, Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, Gemini, Saturn IB, Saturn V, Skylab, and Space Shuttle. The data contained in this paper represent an encapsulation of sixteen years of space-borne-computer development. In addition, the evolution of computer characteristics such as size, weight, power consumption, computing speed, memory capacity, technology, architectural features, software, and fault-tolerant capabilities, is summarized and analyzed to point out the design trends and the motivating causes. The evolution in utilization of the on-board computers; their interface with sensors, displays, and controls; and their interaction with operators are summarized and analyzed to show the increasing role played by computers in the overall space-vehicle system.
Skylab Attitude Control System T. R. Coon, J. E. Irby IBM Journal of Research and Development Volume 20, Number 1, Page 58 (1976) coon.pdfXL coon.pdf	Abstract The attitude stabilization and control system for Skylab evolved from an analog controller into a fully digital processing system. Features of this system include a software-determined attitude reference to provide general maneuvering ability, an in-orbit programming capability, the use of large control moment gyros for attitude control, and the use of vehicle maneuvers to desaturate gyro momentum. The objectives, requirements, and implementations of the control system software are described, along with the rationales for certain design decisions and discussion of some system dynamics and actual performance.
Achieving Reliability: The Evolution of Redundancy in American Manned Spacecraft Computers J.E. Tomayko Wichita State University Journal of the British Interplanetary Society Vol. 38, pp. 545-552, 1985 tomayko_85.doc	Abstract Computers are a key component onboard manned spacecraft.  Gemini, Apollo, Skylab and the Space Shuttle all carried computer systems of increasing functionality and complexity.  All the computer hardware involved in those systems was rated at 95 per cent reliability or better; yet in no case was a computer system implemented without some alternative method of performing critical functions so that crew safety was assured.  How the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) gained the last five per cent of near total reliability is the story of the evolution of the concept of "backup" to the concept of "redundancy."  Success of this evolution is epitomized by the Shuttle, which did what no manned spacecraft had ever done: carry men on its first test flight.  The main factor in enabling NASA to take such a risk was the redundancy built into the Orbiter.
ISC (Integrated Spacecraft Computer) Case Study of a Proven, Viable Approach to Using COTS in Spaceborne Computer Systems Doyle Lahti, Gary Grisbeck, and Phil Bolton General Dynamics Information Systems 14th Annual/USU Conference on Small Satellites scc00-iv-4.pdf	Abstract By judiciously using COTS technology a new space computer product that has lower cost, higher performance, is easy to use and retains the high reliability necessary for use in spaceborne missions was developed.  Modern COTS processors and memories are used with a mixture of military and radhard components to meet the unique thermal-mechanical environment and radiation environment of space and still satisfy the need for high-reliability, low power consumption and low weight.
Obsolete Processor Replacement Options Derek Maddox Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corporation, Aerospace Systems Division benoit_s.pdf benoit_p.pdf	Background (excerpt) Processor obsolescence is becoming an increasingly vexing problem for embedded computer users.  From military and civilian aircraft, to manufacturing facilities, to air traffic control facilities, aging computer systems present a variety of problems. Sometimes the problem is diminishing availability of spare parts for computer repair. At other times the problem is the inability of the processor to absorb new requirements because of limited processor throughput or memory. Regardless how the problem manifests itself, a solution, which is often proposed, is to replace the processor with a more modern piece of equipment. This solution certainly answers the problem with hardware, but leaves the question of what to do with the software which the processor runs.
Advanced Microcircuit Emulation (AME) Program – Developing Next Generation Emulation Technology Harvey M. Hanson, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, San Diego, CA; Donald F. O’Brien, Alex Melnikow, Defense Logistics Agency, Ft. Belvoir, VA; James S. Crabbe, Les R. Avery, Sarnoff Corporation, Princeton, NJ hanson_s.pdf hanson_p.pdf	Abstract This paper presents the Advanced Microcircuit Emulation (AME) Program, a Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) managed tri-service effort that is developing the next generation of form, fit, and function (FFF) microcircuit emulation capability. This program is operated independently from the Defense Supply Center’s (DSCC) Generalized Emulation of Microcircuits (GEM) Production Program. AME’s technology scope includes advanced digital devices, microprocessors/microcontrollers, memory, analog, hybrids, and assemblies employing AME technologies. The paper begins with a brief review of the program’s background and drivers. It continues by detailing AME’s program structure, current status, and concludes with future plans.
An Error Correction Code to Address Neutron Single Event Upsets in Semiconductor Memory David W. Jensen, Ph.D. Advanced Computing Systems Rockwell Collins Thirteenth Biennial Single Effects Symposium Manhattan Beach, CA, April, 2002 jensen_rockwell_seesymp02.ppt	Introduction and Summary Why concerned about Neutron Single Event Upsets (NSEUs)? Error correction codes Combining multiple mitigation techniques could enable an NSEU-tolerant, commercially-fabricated microprocessor Presented efficient error correction block code to address Singe Event Upsets (SEUs) and Multiple Bit Upsets (MBUs) in semiconductor memory Note: Could not make a .pdf file.  (May 3, 2002)
Analysis of the Effects of SEUs on the Hidden Parts of a Pipelined Microprocessor: A Case Study F. Faure, R. Velazco, TIMA-CMP; M. Violante, M. Rebaudengo, M. Sonza Reorda, Politecnico di Torino Presented at the 2002 IEEE NSREC Phoenix, AZ	Abstract A method for estimating the sensitivity to transient errors of a pipelined-cached processor when executing a given program is proposed. Preliminary results show good agreement between predicted and measured figures.
MEASUREMENT OF SINGLE EVENT EFFECTS IN THE 87C51 MICROCONTROLLER Dennis L. Oberg, Member, IEEE, Jerry L. Wert, Eugene Normand, Joseph D. Ness, Peter P. Majewski, and Richard A. Kennerud Boeing Defense & Space Group Seattle, WA 98124-2499 wrk93a.pdf	Abstract This report presents the results of Single Event Effect (SEE) characterization testing of the Intel 87C51FC microcontroller for use in Space Station Freedom (SSF). The 87C51FC exhibited 4 types of SEE: RAM upset and three types of system errors, i.e., reset, latchup, and power cycle (a condition not correctable by the onboard watchdog timer). The microcontroller cross sections and response rates for these single event effects were determined.
The RAD750TM - A Radiation Hardened PowerPCTM Processor for High Performance Spaceborne Applications R. Berger, D. Bayles, R. Brown, S. Doyle, A. Kazemzadeh, K. Knowles, D. Moser, J. Rodgers, B. Saari, and D. Stanley BAE Systems, Manassas, VA Basil Grant LTS Corporation, Manassas, VA IEEE Aerospace Conference, 2001	Abstract BAE Systems has developed the RAD750TM , a fully licensed radiation hardened implementation of the PowerPC 750TM microprocessor, based on the original design database.  The processor is implemented in a 2.5 volt, 0.25 icron, six-layer metal CMOS technology.  Employing a superscalar RISC architecture, processor performance of 240 million Dhrystone 2.1 instructions per second (MIPS) at 133 MHz is provided, while dissipating less than six watts of power.  The RAD750 achieves radiation hardness of 1E-11 upsets/bit-day and is designed for use in high performance spaceborne applications.  A new companion ASIC, the Power PCI, provides the bridge between the RAD750, the 33 MHz PCI backplane bus, and system memory.  The Power PCI is implemented in a 3.3 volt, 0.5 micron, five-layer metal CMOS technology, and achieves radiation hardness of < 1E-10 upsets/bit-day.  This paper describes the implementation of both designs. Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2. RAD750 Architecture 3. RAD750 Circuitry 4. RAD750 Design Validation 5. Technology Issues and Test Sites 6. Power PCI Companion ASIC 7. Conclusion
Radiation Hardened PowerPC 603e ™ Based Single Board Computer Gary R. Brown Honeywell Inc. (727) 539-3705 gary.r.brown@honeywell.com IEEE Aerospace Conference, 2001	Abstract The RHPPC Single Board Computer (SBC) has an open architecture based on COTS standards for form factor, instruction set, operating system, backplane bus, and I/O. The RHPPC is a radiation hardened processor derived from PowerPC 603e™ technology licensed from Motorola.  The RHPPC is 100% software compatible with the commercial PowerPC603e™ part allowing all the mature COTS PowerPC™ software development tools to be used with the RHPPC. The RHPPC SBC architecture has been defined in conjunction with several key users. The RHPPC SBC has features and capabilities that enable systems to provide capabilities never before possible. The RHPPC SBC enables mission processing to be performed on the satellite that in turns allows the satellite to downlink information directly to users. The SBC generates 210 DMIPS while dissipating 12.5 W (nom) for almost 17 MIPS/W. The form factor is 6U x 220 which is the COTS standard. Additionally, the design allows for two COTS compatible PCI Mezzanine Cards (PMC) like daughter board slots. The RHPPC SBC is designed to withstand the stressing vibration environment of launch, and the radiation and thermal environments of space. The design is very reliable with a predicted reliability of better than 0.99 for 15 years with a cold spare. The SBC SEU rate is 1 every 62 years in a constant Adams 90% worst case GEO environment. The RHPPC SBC also provides three types of standard serial I/O. There is a MIL-STD-1553B port with a 8K x 16 buffer memory. The 1553 port is upgradable to dual rate AS1773 with a minor board layout change. There are two full duplex 8250 (UART) compatible asynchronous ports. And there are two full duplex synchronous serial ports. The RHPPC has a VxWorks™ integrated operating environment consisting of startup code (SUROM), a Board Support Package (BSP) and I/O drivers. This flight code is written in C using Wind River's COTS Tornado™ software development environment. Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2. Single Board Computer Overview 3. RHPPC SBC Feature Summary 4. Processor Enhancement Component (PEC) 5. Clocks 6. Local Mezzanine PCI Bus 7. SBC Performance 8. RHPPC Processor 9. Level 2 (L2) Cache 10. Memory 11. CPCI Backplance Bus 12. Input/Output 13. Timers 14. Interrupts 15. Power 16. Mechanical 17. Radiation Hardness 18. Reliability 19. Software Development
32-bit Radiation-Hardened Computers for Space IEEE Aerospace Conference [pretty sure] Captains Joseph Nedeau and Dan King Phillips Laboratory/VTME Ken Hunt Phillips Laboratory/VTMI Denise Lanza Maxwell Technologies Lester Byington The Aerospace Corporation	Abstract Over the past 11 years, the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), Phillips Research Center (formerly Phillips Laboratory) has championed the development of microprocessors and computers for United States Air Force (USAF) space and strategic missile application. The latest of these programs, the Advanced Technology Insertion Module (ATIM), is currently scheduled for completion at the end of 1997. ATM is developing two single-board computers based on 32-bit reduced instruction set computer (RISC) processors. ATIM technology is baselined in the majority of today's Department of Defense (DoD), NASA, including Mars Pathfinder, and commercial satellite systems. The Improved Space Computer Program (ISCP) is envisioned as the next-generation space computer: merging advanced technologies and architectures to meet the high-performance, on-board processing needs for 21st century DoD, NASA, and commercial satellites. ISCP is a three pronged effort to evaluate evolving mission requirements, develop a commercial- heritage architecture, and integrate emerging technologies for space applications. These three areas are: the Phase I Concept/Architecture Studies, the Improved Space Architecture Concept (ISAC), and the technology development efforts. ISAC lays out a sequential approach aimed at developing and demonstrating the potential for on-board, satellite processing. The combined serial and parallel development activities will prove that commercial-heritage architectures and technologies can reduce the development time and costs associated with building the next-generation spacecraft.
LEON-1 Processor - First Evaluation Results gaisler.pdf Jiri Gaisler European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC)	Abstract The LEON-1 is a synthesisable processor developed internally at ESTEC/TOS-ES. It has been synthesised targeting both ASIC and FPGA technologies. This paper describes the rational, design goals and current status of the LEON development.
Embedding COTS Processors into Fault Tolerant Space Applications Joseph R. Marshall, Jr. Dale Langston Loral Federal Systems Paper AIAA-95-1032-CP A Collection of Technical Papers AIAA Computing in Aerospace 10 March 28-30, 1995 San Antonio, TX	Abstract This paper describes our approach for utilizing Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS) processors in fault tolerant space applications.  The history and fault tolerance requirements of space computers are reviewed.  We discuss the trades that enabled us to fashion a general purpose high performance radiation hardened processor, based on a COTS workstation processor, that can be used cost effectively for most space computer applications.

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